Behaviorists human development Essays

Behaviorists human development Essays Behaviorists human development Essay Behaviorists human development Essay The question of whether heredity (nature) or environment (nurture) is more important in determining the course of human development has been debated throughout the centuries (Papalia et al, 2002). The advent of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution (1859), which emphasizes the biological basis of human development, led to a return to the hereditarian point of view. With the rise of behaviorism in the twentieth century, however, the environmentalists’ position once again gained dominance (Atkinson, 1993). Behaviorists such as John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner argued that human nature is completely malleable: early training can turn a child into any kind of adult, regardless of his or her heredity. Watson stated the argument in its most extreme form which is presented the average person’s activity (Atkinson, 1993). Today most psychologists agree not only that both nature and nurture play important roles but that they interact continuously and guide development. For example, the development of many personality traits, such as sociability and emotional stability, appear to be influenced about equally by heredity and environment; similarly, mental disorders can have both genetic and environmental causes (Atkinson, 1993). Behavior geneticists are attempting to sort out the relative importance of nature and nurture influences in the development of various behavior patterns. Psychologists are especially interested in the roles of nature and nurture in intelligence, abnormal behavior patterns such as schizophrenia, and social problems such as sociopathy and aggression (Atkinson, 1993). Non-genetic influence or the environment is perhaps the strongest alibi any person attributes to whenever things turn out not as good as they want them to be. We often make justifications why we tend to be mediocre; â€Å"because my parents did not try their very best to train me and provide for all that I need,† is our typical rejoinder. To what extent is this true, and where does the line end when it comes to personal responsibility, genetic predispositions, or the responsibility and accountability of people who exert immense influence on us? The argument postulated in this paper is not so much as â€Å"drawing the line† in as much as it has evidently proven the great impact of nurture on personality and/or human development in general (Papalia et al, 2002). Parental abuse and neglect have been issues in learning because these are factors that are vital to the child’s overall performance and normal functioning as they operate as kids and later as adults in the real world. This is also true with nutritional status of children in their growing years. Several studies have proven the effects of these factors that they are consciously observed among the educated parents; as much as possible, many actively pursue in avoiding the drastic effects of either deficiency (Papalia et al, 2002). Indeed, the environmental changes that are constantly influencing children in their early stages are established in the scientific disciplines; this despite the many arguments to the contrary. Operant conditioning, like classical conditioning, is not just an exotic laboratory procedure. People use operant conditioning everyday in their effort to influence other people. For example, parents and peers incline children to acquire â€Å"sex appropriate† behavior patterns through the elaborate use of rewards and punishment. Parents tend to praise their children for sharing with others and to punish their children for being too aggressive. The strength of an operant response can be measured by its resistance to extinction: that is, how long it takes for the behavior to return to its original rate once the pleasant consequence following the behavior no longer occurs. It is thus told that it is generally correct to say that for an operant response to be strengthened, the response should be rewarded (Nevid, Rathus and Greene, 2008). But reward in ordinary language denotes things such as money, candy, or praise. There would be times, however, that a reward will not always strengthen an operant response. This is further explained in other phenomena of operant conditioning called reinforcement; the negative and positive reinforcers etc. Reinforcement is anything that increases the probability that a particular response will increase in frequency. The presentation (positive) or removal (negative) of particular consequences may reinforce responses. Thus, reinforcement may be either positive or negative (Nevid, Rathus and Greene, 2008). Positive reinforcer increases the probability that an operant will occur when it is applied, or it increases the likelihood that a particular response will occur. When a student gets a high grade as reward for his effective study habits, he is likely to consistently follow his rewarded behavior. This is an example of positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcer increases the probability that an operant will occur when it is removed. People often learn to plan ahead so that they need not fear that things will go wrong. Fear acts as a negative reinforcer, because removal of fear increases the probability that the behaviors preceding it will be repeated (Nevid, Rathus and Greene, 2008). Primary reinforcers. There are some reinforcers that are innately reinforcing. They’re powerful in increasing the chance that a particular behavior will occur. They are usually effective because they satisfy basic physiological needs, food, clothing, and shelter are considered primary reinforcers (Nevid, Rathus and Greene, 2008). Secondary reinforcers are reinforcers which are not innately reinforcing. Their power to reinforce behavior is acquired and not innately present. Money, grades, prize, and tokens are secondary reinforcers (Nevid, Rathus and Greene, 2008). Punishments are aversive events that suppress or decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow. Punishment can rapidly suppress undesirable behavior and may be warranted in â€Å"emergencies† such as when a child tries to run out into the street (Nevid, Rathus and Greene, 2008). Case 1: Connie Demographics (age, race, sex etc. ) Connie is in the early adolescent stage of development. After watching and observing her with the allotted time, she easily related with me some basic information about herself. She’s thirteen years old, and will be turning fourteen (14) by June this year. She had her menarche last October 2008 but she said, it is not that regular yet. She has only one other sibling, a younger sister now three years old, and also a girl. Appearance (clothing, approximate height and weight and other defining characteristics) Connie is tall and lanky, and seems awkward of her height (five feet and 4 inches). She dresses simply; appeared to opt for a sporty look rather than the more feminine type. She has a medium length raven-black wavy hair. Her slim body build makes her a stand out in the crowd since many of her peers in the school ground where they are seen together, are all on the bulky side. She has a confident gait, but she appears to be very conscious at times of the stares that she gets from some of the other students strolling in the area. Her group of friends was watching something in the ipod her classmate was holding and so the mood just suddenly became serious. They were all wearing their school uniform this particular day. It comprised of a blue skirt with a white blouse, with a tiny blue ribbon to accessorize the whole get up. They donned on their IDs as well but Connie set herself apart as she was wearing a grey beret.

Spanish Adverbs of Quantity

Spanish Adverbs of Quantity Adverbs of quantity are those that explain how many or how much. They include many of the intensifiers (adverbs of intensity) and also include a few moderators (adverbs that diminish intensity). Like other adverbs, the adverbs of quantity can affect the meanings of verbs, adjectives, other adverbs and occasionally entire sentences. As noted below, many of the adverbs of quantity can also serve as adjectives. When theyre adjectives, they can vary with gender and number, while the adverb is always the same as the singular masculine form of the adjective. (This rule is sometimes violated in casual speech, and you may occasionally hear an adverb change to match a nearby noun. This grammatical tendency is considered substandard and is best not imitated.) For example, while poco is an adverb, the adjective can be poco, poca, pocos or pocas. Adverbs of Quantity Here are some of the common adverbs of quantity along with sample sentences and possible translations: Adems (additionally, besides): This word typically refers to a verb or an entire sentence and is often used in the phrase adems de Y adems es imposible. And furthermore its impossible.La comisià ³n estudia adems la creacià ³n de una junta consultiva. The commission is additionally studying the creation of an advisory board.Adems de casino, Santa Fe ahora tiene shopping. In addition to having a casino, Sante Fe now has shopping.Adems  ¿quà © es lo que podemos hacer allà ­? Besides, what can we do there?Adems, Raà ºl duerme en una habitacià ³n hipobrica para aumentar su rendimiento. In addition, Raul sleeps in a hyperbaric chamber to improve his performance. Algo (somewhat, slightly): Dont confuse the adverbial meaning with its use as a pronoun meaning something. Me siento algo vieja. Im feeling somewhat old.El 23% dice que est algo preocupado o muy preocupado de que pueda perder su trabajo en los prà ³ximos 12 meses. Twenty-three percent say they are somewhat worried or very worried that they could lose their job in the next 12 months. Apenas (barely, hardly): Toco la guitarra desde hace apenas un aà ±o. I have played the guitar for barely a year.Mi hijo apenas habla. My son barely speaks. Bastante (enough, quite a bit): This word can also be used as an adjective or pronoun to mean enough. As an adverb, it can have the meaning of sufficiency or to mean considerably, depending on the context. Me parece que no estudia bastante. It seems to me he doesnt study enough.Es bastante inteligente y siempre tiene una respuesta para todo. He is quite intelligent and always has an answer for everything.La verdad es que cantas bastante bien. The truth is you sing quite well.Necesito saber de algà ºn hotel bastante barato en Cdiz. I need to know of a sufficiently cheap hotel in Cadiz. Casi (almost): Comenzà ³ hace casi tres aà ±os. It began almost three years ago.Casi me rompà ­ la mano. I almost broke my hand.Su objetivo se habà ­a cumplido: ya era mucho ms que casi famosa. Her goal had been accomplished: She was now more than almost famous. Demasiado (too much): This word can also function as an adjective. ngela habla demasiado de su vida privada. Angela speaks too much about her private life.Creo que soy demasiado guapa. Muchà ­sima gente me lo dicen constantemente. I think I am much too pretty. Many people tell me that constantly. Ms (more, most): This word can also be used as adjective, pronoun or preposition. As an adverb, it is commonly used in making comparisons, although the comparison doesnt have to be explicitly stated. Es el libro ms poderoso del mundo. Its the most powerful book in the world.En Italia funcionan ms de 150 emisoras privadas. More than 150 private broadcasters operate in Italy.Nadie te quiere ms que yo. Nobody loves you more than I do.Tienes que escoger cul te gusta ms de los dos. You have to pick which of the two you like more.La palabra hablada ms importante es no. The most important spoken word is no.Soy el que ms sabe de fà ºtbol. Im the one who knows most about soccer.Tenemos que ser ms competitivos. We have to be more competitive. Medio (half): This word can also be used as an adjective. La pila est medio muerta. The battery is half-dead.Si la puerta est medio abierta, entonces la abre completamente. If the door is half-open, then open it completely. Menos (less, least): This word is used much the same way as ms except with the opposite meaning. El Superman actual es menos poderoso que sus predecesores. The current Superman is less powerful than his predecessors.Yo pienso que la gente inteligente es menos feliz. I think intelligent people are less happy. Mucho (much, very, a lot): This word can also be used as an adjective or pronoun. Mi novio habla mucho con su ex. My boyfriend talks a lot with his ex.La nueva es mucho mejor. The new one is much better. Muy (very): Ha sido un partido muy difà ­cil. It has been a very difficult game.La iguana cambiar su color de piel a uno muy amarillo para reflejar el calor. The iguana will change its skin color to one very yellow in order to reflect the heat. Poco (a little, not much, not): This word can also be used as an adjective or pronoun. As a plural adjective, it typically means few. Estudia poco pero aprende mucho. She studies a little but learns a lot.La mitad de los espaà ±oles come poco pan creyendo que engorda. Half of Spaniards each little bread because they believe it makes them fat.Mi primo es una persona poco complicada. My cousin is an uncomplicated person. Sà ³lo (only): Traditionally, this word has been spelled with an accent when it functions as an adverb, although the accent isnt strictly necessary if there is no chance of confusing it with solo the adjective. Sà ³lo como carne producida orgnicamente. I only eat organically produced meat.Yo sà ³lo querà ­a hacer mi trabajo. I only wanted to do my work. Tan, tanto (so, as, so much): Tanto as an adverb is shortened to tan when it comes before an adjective, adverb or a phrase functioning as an adverb or adjective. Such is the case most of the time. Es tan fcil como el uno, dos, tres. Its as easy as one, two, three. ¿Por quà © hablan tan rpido el espaà ±ol? Why do they speak Spanish so fast?Era tan flaca que la gente la confundà ­a con un palillo de dientes. She was so skinny people confused her for a toothpick.Estudiaba tanto que me dolà ­a. I studied so much it hurt.